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San Francisco's de Young Museum, located in
Golden Gate Park, is the last stop for a travelling exhibit that serves as an
introduction to Arts and Crafts history. 'International Arts and Crafts:
William Morris to Frank Lloyd Wright' premiered more than a year ago at
London's Victoria & Albert Museum and travelled to the Indianapolis Museum
of Art, before arriving at the de Young. The show provides viewers who may be
familiar with the 'big' names associated with Arts and Crafts (Ruskin, Morris,
Mackintosh, Wright and Stickley) with a much broader picture. More than 300
examples of Arts and Crafts design - including furniture, ceramics, silver,
jewellery, tapestries, enamel, hand-painted panels, book bindings,
illustrations, musical instruments and light fixtures - drawn from the period
1880-1945 - represent artists working in diverse regions and cultures. Before
entering the de Young's new home,1 a rather stark, copper-skinned modern
complex designed by Swiss architectural team, Jacques Herzog and Pierre de
Meuron and Fong & Chan Architects in San Francisco, that was completed in
2005, visitors should treat themselves to the natural wonders showcased in the
park's Conservatory of Flowers. The experience may be the perfect prelude to
the exhibit; the graceful, artfully arranged exotic buds and blooms displayed
in the Conservatory demonstrate the masterful design and astounding variety
apparent in natural forms.
The men who worked to organise a
large-scale Arts and Crafts revival took the name for their movement from the
Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded in England in 1888. While the
general aesthetic principles of the Arts and Crafts Movement as they came to be
articulated by its thinkers and philosophers can be simply stated, visitors
will marvel at the variety of expressions - merely indicated by the works on
view at the de Young - these basic principles made possible. Disheartened by
the effects of industrialisation on handcrafting and the division between fine
art and craft, Englishmen John Ruskin (1819-1900) and William Morris (1834-96)
celebrated the traditional crafts and promoted a return to simpler forms
inspired by nature; finely tuned attention to detail; a commitment to the
highest-quality craftsmanship; and the central role of the artist-craftsman in
making products that could enrich every aspect of daily life.
By connecting fine art, craft and everyday
household objects, Arts and Crafts artists offered their patrons wares that
promised to delight the senses while serving genuine needs. The function of an
object was considered to be inseparable from its form. This notion sparked a
number of important design innovations, and a comprehensive view of
environmental design. In Scotland, Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868-1928) and
his associates designed and executed furnishings for public buildings, private
homes, shops and tearooms. Mackintosh served as architect, interior designer
and craftsman on many of his projects. The Mackintosh School, as it came to be
known, influenced artists in many countries, notably those in Belgium, Germany
and Austria, who formed the Wiener Werkstatte. These artists developed a
linear, geometric style that can be seen in the work of Viennese architect
Josef Hoffman (1870-1956).
Placing a spotlight on the craftsman,
Ruskin and Morris hoped, would elevate the status of craftsmanship and design
to fine art. In turn, such fine artists as Edward Burne-Jones found an ample
supply of surfaces in need of their images and designs. In Ruskin and Morris's
eyes, Arts and Crafts artists were true Renaissance men and women who could
transform household objects into works of art by uniting their skill and
vision. Writers, philosophers and critics, as well as visual artists, Ruskin and
Morris were capable spokesmen. Their intensity and drive fuelled a phenomenon
that, ultimately, became as much a social movement as a ruling aesthetic.
In England, commitment to the handmade
process was an essential tenet of Arts and Crafts philosophy and members'
approach to art and design. Ruskin and Morris glorified the past, taking for
inspiration the legends and imagery of the Medieval period, as well as Greek
and Roman mythology. Technology and urbanisation were cast as the enemies,
life-depleting trends that drained the spirit from those who toiled in
depersonalised environments devoid of beauty, harmony and inspiration. In this
vision, the craftsman became a saviour; someone who could restore humanity to a
golden age in which beauty was made manifest to ennoble mankind.
As dramatic as this rhetoric may sound, at
the time, the effects of industrialisation were already being felt throughout
England. Dickens had chronicled the plight of poachers and orphans, while such
authors as George MacDonald and illustrators as Richard Doyle had popularised
fantasy and fairylore, providing escape routes for the beleaguered middle
class. The holistic vision of the Arts and Crafts Movement appealed to people
who felt lost amid the rapid changes in nearly every aspect of life. The
situation at the end of the 19th century was comparable to our own in that
technology was moving to replace the person. Fear and uncertainty could be
assuaged with nurturing objects that reflected traditional values.
Artists in other countries were not so quick
to disregard the benefits of technology. In Germany, at the artist colony at
Darmstadt, technology was embraced wholeheartedly as a means to perfect craft.
Founded in 1899 by Ernest Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse (1868-1937), the grandson
of Queen Victoria, Darmstadt was the home of designers Peter Behrens
(1868-1940), Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867-1908) and Richard Riemerschmid
(1868-1957). Behrens's students included Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and
Ludwig Miës van der Rohe. His architectural style is a cornerstone of modern
German architecture. In 1899, Behrens was invited to Darmstadt, where he
quickly became a leader in an exciting Arts and Crafts revival, just as the
country's craftsmen were moving from the Jugendstil style, a near-relative to
Art Nouveau, to Industrial Classicism.
In countries where industrialisation had
not yet made an impact, social conditions influenced the direction of Arts and
Crafts philosophy toward nationalism. Without a strong network of communication
and venues to gather on a national level, the movement in these countries was
decentralised. Local crafts and traditions flourished, creating a kaleidoscopic
range of materials and motifs. Preserving centuries-old traditions was the goal
of architects, designers, craftsmen, writers and musicians. In Hungary, for
example, Janos Vaszary (1867-1939) painted idealised images of Hungarian
peasants who worked the land and were faithful to their countrymen. The
movement in these countries touched every aspect of the arts that could be used
to proclaim ethnic identity and national unity.
Given the idealistic aims and rhetoric of
its earliest spokesmen, it may seem ironic that the movement became a way to
ensure the commercial success of Arts and Crafts products with consumers from
all social classes. While patrons filled their homes with harmoniously designed
furniture, fabrics, wall hangings and ceramics, churches throughout England
made plans for extensive restorations. Morris and his fellow classmate at
Oxford, Burne-Jones, worked on many commissions, turning their personal
interests in Medievalism into glorious panels of stained glass, opulent
tapestries and other adornments. Many craftsmen found work on such projects,
ensuring not only their livelihood but also the continuation of their trade.
Art schools experienced a great increase in the number of applicants as
potential students came to see 'artist' as a viable vocation. Clearly, Arts and
Crafts philosophy was good for business.
In America, artist-craftsmen found steady
work on projects by a number of men who were as much businessmen as artists.
Intelligent innovators, they made major impacts on the way in which home and
public spaces were conceived, designed and furnished. Gustav Stickley
(1862-1942) created what is now known as America's first indigenous furniture.
After travelling to England in 1897, Stickley returned home, inspired by Ruskin
and Morris's vision. Free of gratuitous ornamentation, Stickley's works offer a
direct experience of how materials, form and function interact to create
harmony. He began publishing a journal, The Craftsman, in 1901, to promote his architectural philosophy and honour his
debt to Morris and Ruskin; and he dedicated the first and second issues to them
respectively. Some hallmarks of Stickley's style are an open floor plan, ample
use of light, and materials from the local environment.
Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) built on
Stickley's innovations to create his own highly influential style. Born in
Wisconsin, Wright and his style were rooted in the mid-western landscape.
During the first decade of the 20th century, he designed Prairie Houses;
residences consisting of low buildings and shallow, sloping roofs and terraces,
to complement the local landscape. Like Ruskin and Morris, Wright believed that
the individual was the starting point for successful design. And like the
Renaissance craftsmen that Ruskin and Morris praised, Wright had a broad
palette; from public and private spaces, furniture and lighting fixtures to
churches and concepts for suburban development, Wright's range was nearly
exhaustive.
As Stickley, Wright and other
business/craftsmen built their empires, utopian art colonies formed around the
country, particularly in the north-east. These experiments in communal living
integrated craft with daily existence. Many of them were short-lived, but some
continue in some form today. Byrdcliff, for example, founded in Woodstock, New
York, in 1903 by Englishman Ralph Radcliffe Whitehead, had pottery, metal and
woodworking shops, art classes and dormitories as well as a dairy and other
living spaces. Manual labour, as well as craftwork, were critical to the
success of the community. At the Whitehead home, Byrdcliffe residents were
exposed to well-known poets, writers, dancers and thinkers. Today, the house is
open to the public as a museum. Since 1984, cottages on the property have been
rented to working artists to continue Whitehead's legacy.2
The final portion of the exhibit features a
look at how Arts and Crafts philosophy touched Japan in the Mingei (folk craft)
Movement. During the 1920s, Japanese scholar Dr Soetsu Yanagi founded the
Mingei Association of Japan with potters Shoji Hamada and Kanjiro Kawai. Soetsu
created a new name for his movement, joining the words min (all people) and gei (art), and
built the first museum dedicated to the 'arts of the people', located in Tokyo.
Mirroring the way in which traditional crafts were passed on through families,
Soetsu's son now directs the museum. The furniture, pottery, textiles and other
objects on view at the de Young recreate a Mingei pavilion built in Tokyo in
1928. This setting attempted to join Western living styles with the traditional
Japanese aesthetic.
After immersing themselves in some fine
examples of Mingei handcraft, visitors may want to head from the museum to
Golden Gate Park's Japanese Tea Garden, located a few steps away. The garden is
a peaceful retreat, whether bathed in sunlight or shrouded in fog and misty
rain. A small outdoor tearoom offers refreshing cups of green tea, and a few
moments spent sipping the golden brew will give visitors time to reflect on the
beautifully crafted and harmoniously designed objects presented at the de
Young. At this point, they may begin to wonder at how Arts and Crafts principles
and aims developed into an international movement encompassing such a wide
variety of styles, symbols, societies and production systems. The full effects
of the Arts and Crafts Movement are incalculable and continue to reverberate,
as artists explore the extent to which they can refine their craft and express
their individual visions. A walk through the San Francisco Bay Area, where the
earliest examples of Arts and Crafts style in America are located, is a good
starting point for seeking contemporary Arts and Crafts ware wherever it may be
found.
'International Arts and Crafts: William
Morris to Frank Lloyd Wright' opened on 18 March
at the de Young Museum and closes on 18 June 2006. The exhibit debuted at the
Victoria & Albert Museum in London, running from 17 March-24 July 2005 and
travelled to the Indianapolis Museum of Art, running from 27 September-22
January 2005.
Cindi Di Marzo
1. There has been some controversy over the 'success' of the design, parts of which have been compared to an 'Internet start-up company' and an 'aircraft carrier'. See 'De Young's Rebirth', San Francisco Chronicle, 15 october 2005.
2. See the online exhibition, 'Byrdcliffe: An American Arts and Crafts Community' (www.museum.cornell.edu/byrdcliffe/
byrd_exhibition/byrd11.html)
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