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30/5/03
Titian
National Gallery, London, 19 February-18 May 2003
'Titian' is the first in a series of three exhibitions
of Renaissance art to be held at the National Gallery, London. It
will be followed in 2004 by 'El Greco' and 'Raphael'. Described
by critics as 'magnificent' and 'the finest Old Master exhibition
… ever seen', 'unmissable for lovers of painting', 'Titian'
sets itself apart, not so much in its comprehensive nature (which
would be impossible), but rather in displaying an outstanding collection
of the great artist's works. Of particular value, the exhibition
brings together three paintings by Titian and one by Bellini for
the first time since they were separated in 1598. Commissioned by
Alfonso d'Este, the three mythological paintings: 'Bacchus and Ariadne'
(1521-23) 'The Andrians' (1523-25) and 'The Worship of Venus' (1516)
hung in the Duke's study, alongside Giovanni Bellini's 'Feast of
the Gods'(1514). This is the first opportunity to view these works
in the context of their original setting and it is a sublime experience.
Tiziano Vecellio, known in English as 'Titian', was the first Venetian
artist to achieve fame in his own lifetime (c.1487-1576) and to
be employed mostly by patrons outside Venice. Partly because he
lived to the grand age of 90, he was able to produce a great body
of work which ranged from dramatic mythological works to intensely
human portraits. Few other artists have had such an impact on their
contemporaries and on the development of Western art in general.
The impact, on artists of all generations, over the 500 years since
his death, has been profound. He has been cited as the most perfect
artist that has ever been. Titian's contribution is difficult to
quantify in general terms, but it is difficult to imagine how the
history of Western art, from Rubens to the Impressionists, would
have developed without him. It is reasonable to say, however, that
in his lifetime Titian transformed virtually all forms of painting
known: the portrait, the nude, the altarpiece, the landscape and
the portrayal of mythological scenes.
In spite of the appreciation of Titian in Britain,
this is the first monographical exhibition in this country. In 1983
the Royal Academy's 'Genius of Venice' showed the brilliance of
the 16th century Venetian School, with Titian as its 'brightest
star'. Eleven works from the National Gallery's collection form
a core for the exhibition; key works have been borrowed from the
Louvre, the Prado, the Hermitage and the Uffizi, from Washington
DC, Berlin and the Czech Republic. The exhibition is, in fact, a
collaboration between the National Gallery and the Museo Nacional
del Prado in Madrid. The exhibition has on display over 40 major
works.
As a young artist, Titian (aged about ten) was
apprenticed in the studio of Giovanni Bellini, the foremost Venetian
painter. In or around 1506, Titian became impressed by Giorgione,
also a pupil of Bellini. Giorgione was adopting a freer, more naturalistic
style. In 1508 Titian assisted Giorgione painting frescoes on a
warehouse in Venice. Although the frescoes became damaged and barely
legible, several observers wrote that the young Titian's contribution
was more accomplished than Giorgione's, even though scholars claimed
that until his early death in 1510, Giorgione was the leading painter
in Venice. By 1511 when Titian painted three frescoes illustrating
the miracles of St Anthony (Padua) there is a certainty and maturity;
the figures have a 'naturalness and monumentality unmatched in the
work of any other artist working in or around Venice at that period'.1
A number of paintings were wrongly attributed to
Giorgione and have since been conceded to Titian. As a result the
structure of Titian's early career has been unclear - a cohesive
sequence of his early works remains elusive. Recent scholarship,
however, such as the essays in the catalogue that accompanies the
London show, investigates anomalies and received wisdom on Titian.
From the point at which Titian becomes famous, the controversy surrounding
his early work stops. He is mentioned in contemporary sources. As
early as 1513 he was the youngest artist to be given a commission
to paint a work for the Hall of the Great Council in Venice (later
destroyed by fire in 1577). When his teacher Bellini died, Titian
was awarded the government sinecure that his teacher had held; it
gave him a steady income for the rest of his life.2
The grand altarpiece (1518) at Santa Maria Gloriosa
dei Frari, one of the most important churches in Venice, strengthened
his career. As a painting it marked a dramatic departure from all
previous paintings. It was large in scale and the figures imbued
with movement and power. There is a profoundly spiritual force in
the work, unprecedented at the time. 'The Madonna of the Pesaro
Family' (1519-26) is another example of Titian's ability
to create a different internal structure to a work. It posed complicated
formal issues in the placing of numerous figures in relation to
the architectural form and the shape of the frame. By using architectural
form to define the areas of light and dark in the composition Titian
established a new precedent. The drama created and the elegance
of the composition are remarkable.
The three mythological paintings for Alfonso d'Este,
Duke of Ferrara (from 1518) were a series commissioned to decorate
the study of his private apartments. The first commissioned was
by Bellini. The commission was in itself unusual, as mythological
subjects were not much chosen for private patrons by leading artists.
Alfonso's motive was primarily to possess fine works of art. It
was not an art with a moral narrative and, as such, could not be
considered an edifying art, as was the norm for important commissions.
Chosen from classical antiquity, Titian then imbued the subjects
with a contemporary ambience by the use of modern dress. Ancient
painting was not imitated although the 3rd Century AD was alluded
to. The ancient world was presented as a model for most aspects
of life: architecture, philosophy, warfare. Titian changed the manner
in which pagan myth was presented thus establishing a precedent
for subsequent artists. By the 19th century this interpretation
of classical mythology was well established. Recent art which has,
as its stated aim, a dialogue with the past owes much to the achievements
of Titian. Charles Hope writes,
The subjects of 'The Worship of Venus' and 'The Andrians'
were taken from the Imagines of Philostratus, a description
of a probably imaginary ancient picture gallery, dating from the
3rd century AD. But Titian did not attempt to follow these texts
with pedantic fidelity… What he did instead was to provide
an extraordinarily compelling interpretation of pagan myth, emulating
the supposed lifelikeness of the paintings described by Philostratus.
This interpretation has proved so seductive that we see mythology
through the eyes of Titian and his later imitators.
Particularly in his great altarpieces and mythologies, by 1530
Titian had transformed the language of Venetian painting, creating
new conventions which were to be regarded as definitive for more
than two centuries.3
Portrait painting was also quite transformed by
Titian who, by the 1520s, had established himself as an influential
portraitist both in Venice and beyond, from where he attracted wealthy
patrons. His training stood him in good stead, as the Bellini brothers
were among the very best portraitists in Northern Italy. 'Cosmopolitan
Venice was a good market for portraiture, for members of its large
ruling nobility like Senator Nicolò Zen celebrated promotion
to political office with portraits in uniform. Rich citizens, foreign
residents and visiting diplomats all required portraits. In this
exhibition alone we find a Florentine toddler, the brother of a
Genoese doge and a French bishop.'4
Titian's portraits were flattering and sympathetic.
He had an ability to please his sitters yet retain an artistic integrity
and insight into the individual and 'he established compelling models
for aristocratic portraiture which remained influential for centuries'.5
Jennifer Fletcher continues, 'Titian's outstanding quality was his
ability to produce a convincing likeness, and, through choice of
pose and attributes and by the allocation of exactly the right amount
of surrounding space, to arrive at a decorous yet perceptive characterisation.
His art is not based on repetitive formulae. Deeply interested in
individual appearance and specific optical effects, he varied his
touch, the size and direction of his brushstrokes, according to
the scale, intended location and tastes of the patron. His compositions
were tailor-made for each sitter and, except in workshop replicas,
not repeated'.6 'Titian's friends in Venice included ambassadors,
musicians, courtesans and writers.'7
Highly aristocratic patrons were more able to flout
convention where propriety was concerned. 'Venus of Urbino', (c.1538)
one of the most erotic and beautiful nudes in the history of Western
art is a case in point. The original patron is not known and in
later years Titian tended towards highly suggestive nudes. The Venus
could not be included in the London exhibition, but another erotic
nude, 'Danaë', (1544-45) is. In September 1544, a papal
nuncio visited Titian's studio where the 'Danaë' nude
was in progress. He later wrote to Cardinal Farnese to say that
the female nude was so erotically entrancing, she made 'The Venus
of Urbino' look like 'a Theatine nun'. Titian sensual application
of paint was often applied using his bare hands.
What is compelling about the Titian exhibition
is the sheer range of his accomplishments. He transformed portraiture,
landscape, mythological painting. He created the naturalistic portrayal
of children and babies and a psychological tension and drama quite
unprecedented in painting. Since his remarkable life, he has exerted
a great influence on artists of all periods.
In technical terms Titian was one of the first
artists in Italy to extend the expressive effects of oil painting.
Modern techniques of scientific analysis reveal Titian's methods
of painting as never before. The exhibition catalogue contains a
detailed essay by Jill Dunkerton on Titian's painting technique.
Titian's technique has long been admired but not fully understood.
In the 18th century, Sir Joshua Reynolds was so keen to discover
the great painter's secrets that he scraped down a painting by Titian
that he himself owned, layer by layer.
Given his wealthy clientele, Titian was able to
afford the very finest pigments. Venice was the centre of the pigment
trade in Europe and so it was possible to procure the finest grades
of ultramarine (lapis lazuli, refined and ground from what is now
Afghanistan) the best quality azurite, from Germany and the much
sought after mineral pigments including the yellow and orange arsenic-based
colours. Venice was well known for vermilion, lead-tin yellow and
lead white. The glass industry and the extensive dyeing industries
in Venice supported the specialist production and import of superbly
expressive pigments, central to Titian's technique. The use of yellows
and whites, for example, enabled Titian to develop quite breathtaking
effects in spiritual and psychological terms: stature, solemnity
and energy. His portrayal of Christ interrogated by the Pharisees,
'The Tribute Money' (about 1560-68) shows Christ in a dangerous
position adopting a serene but authoritative stance. The subtlety
achieved by Titian here and in his fine range of superb portraits
in this exhibition is magnificent. Through painting, Titian captured
and comprehended the very essence of things.
The exhibition culminates in a group of late paintings.
The late paintings could easily constitute a separate review for
they display an unprecedented freedom in the handling of paint.
The sketchy brushstrokes and lack of finish that have had great
appeal to modern artists, have been explained as the work of an
artist in extreme old age, drawn to violence and intense introversion.
Referring to 'The Death of Actaeon' (c.1565-76), from the National
Gallery's own collection, and 'The Flaying of Marsyas' (1550-76),
on loan from the State Museum in Kromeriz, Czech Republic, 'Both
paintings tell of the punishments meted out by the gods on presumptuous
mortals, dramatising, perhaps, the ageing Titian's sense that his
own moment of judgement was drawing near'.8
Scholars continue to argue over the precise status
of the late works, which were still in Titian's studio when he died.
Leading Titian scholar Charles Hope, in his catalogue essay, argues
that the works which are relatively sketchy and monochromatic are,
in fact, unfinished. According to Hope, behind the idea that Titian's
late works represent tragedy and isolation is the view that he was
himself lonely and isolated. He states, 'This would certainly be
consistent with romantic notions about artistic genius, but it is
not compatible with what is known about Titian's circumstances'.9
In terms of finish, 'Tarquin and Lucretia' (around
1570) is unlike the sketchy paintings and shows brutality and vulnerability
with great visual alacrity. It captures the split second of fear
in Lucretia's face with whom Titian manages to endow with dignity,
status and beauty. The application of paint, the use of dramatic
reds contribute to the frenzied quality of the work. 'The Death
of Actaeon' is also a haunting work, but the paint quality
is quite different, leading to speculation as to the significance
of the work in formal terms. Hope's views are refuted by Jill Dunkerton
who has studied X-rays of a number of smoother 'finished' late works.
Looking beneath the surface of such paintings, she finds there is
no sketchy level of work that resembles 'The Death of Actaeon' and
'The Flaying of Marsyas'. As she states, 'it would be wrong to assume
that such paint handling was intended to be refined in the later
stages of execution'.10
The Australian artist Arthur Boyd (1920-1999) discovered
Titian's 'Death of Actaeon' soon after he arrived in London
in the 1960s. He was so profoundly affected by the work that he
created fifty or more paintings, etchings, drawings from this work.
Entitled the 'Nude with Beast' series, they were amplified and used
as theatre sets for the production of 'Elektra' at the Royal Opera
House in Covent Garden (1962-3). Not only did Boyd create remarkable
and prophetic works from this single painting but, like many other
artists, he also adopted Titian's approach to art of the past and
classical mythology, imbuing his interpretation with a contemporary
significance.11 If Dunkerton is right, then Titian's late works
were intended to look as we have in fact had the privilege to see
them in this superb exhibition. The National Gallery has presented
a stimulating debate in the process.
Titian died on 27 August 1576 during the greatest
plague to hit Venice in the 16th century. He was survived by a large
extended family and left an artistic legacy of sheer brilliance.
1. Charles Hope, 'Titian's Life and Times', Titian, National Gallery
Company Ltd, London, 2003, p.13.
2. Ibid, p.15.
3. Ibid, p.18.
4. Jennifer Fletcher, 'Titian as a Painter of Portraits', ibid,
p.33.
5. Hope, p.18.
6. Fletcher, op.cit., p.37.
7. Hope, op.cit., p.19.
8. Andrew Graham-Dixon, 'Seduced by Paint', The Sunday Telegraph
Magazine, 9 February 2003, London, p.29.
9. Hope, op.cit., p.28.
10. Jill Dunkerton, "Titian's Painting Technique", ibid, p.59.
11. See Janet McKenzie, Arthur Boyd, Art and Life, Thames
and Hudson, London, 2000.
Dr Janet McKenzie
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